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| Egypt Modern History & The Middle East |
| Egyptian Rulers 1800-1900 Mohamed Ali Pasha I |
Viceroy and pasha of Egypt
(1805-49), founder of the dynasty that
ruled Egypt from the beginning of the
19th century to the middle of the 20th.
He encouraged the emergence of the
modern Egyptian state.
Rise to power.
Muhammad 'Ali's ethnic background is
unknown, though he may have been an
Albanian and was certainly a Muslim
and an Ottoman subject. His father,
Ibrahim Agha, the commander of a
small provincial military force that was
maintained by the governor of Kavala,
died when Muhammad 'Ali was a boy,
and he was brought up by the
governor. At 18 he was married to one
of the governor's relatives, who
became the mother of five of
Muhammad 'Ali's 95 children. He
became involved in the tobacco trade,
an experience that may account for his
later commercial interests.
In 1798 Egypt, at that time a
semi-autonomous province of the
Ottoman Empire, was occupied by a
French force under Napoleon
Bonaparte. Muhammad 'Ali went there
as part of an Ottoman expeditionary
force to oppose the French. With great
political skill, he managed by 1805 to
be named the wali, the Ottoman
sultan's viceroy in Egypt, with the rank
of pasha.
(1805-49), founder of the dynasty that
ruled Egypt from the beginning of the
19th century to the middle of the 20th.
He encouraged the emergence of the
modern Egyptian state.
Rise to power.
Muhammad 'Ali's ethnic background is
unknown, though he may have been an
Albanian and was certainly a Muslim
and an Ottoman subject. His father,
Ibrahim Agha, the commander of a
small provincial military force that was
maintained by the governor of Kavala,
died when Muhammad 'Ali was a boy,
and he was brought up by the
governor. At 18 he was married to one
of the governor's relatives, who
became the mother of five of
Muhammad 'Ali's 95 children. He
became involved in the tobacco trade,
an experience that may account for his
later commercial interests.
In 1798 Egypt, at that time a
semi-autonomous province of the
Ottoman Empire, was occupied by a
French force under Napoleon
Bonaparte. Muhammad 'Ali went there
as part of an Ottoman expeditionary
force to oppose the French. With great
political skill, he managed by 1805 to
be named the wali, the Ottoman
sultan's viceroy in Egypt, with the rank
of pasha.
* Pic.:Mohamed Ali Pasha receiving Envoys
and Ambassadors of Europe at Alexanderia
and Ambassadors of Europe at Alexanderia
| ** Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. |
Mohamed Ali Pasha II |
Muhammad Ali (1769-1849), also Mehemet Ali, Ottoman pasha (or
viceroy) of Egypt (1805-1849), who reformed the country and founded a
dynasty that ruled it until the mid-20th century.
Muhammad Ali was probably born in Kavála (now in eastern Macedonia,
Greece) of Albanian parentage. From 1799 to 1801 he fought in several
battles in Egypt, then part of the Ottoman Empire, against the French forces
led by Napoleon I. In 1805 Muhammad Ali was appointed viceroy of
Egypt, with the title of pasha. He defeated an invading British army in 1807;
four years later he ensured his supremacy in Egypt by massacring the
Mamelukes, a military group that had conspired to usurp his power. He
modernized Egypt's governmental administration and military forces and in
1811 launched a war against the Wahhabis of Arabia; the war was won in
1818 by his son, Ibrahim Pasha. From 1820 to 1822 Muhammad Ali was
engaged in the conquest of the Sudan, and shortly thereafter, in 1823, he
founded the city of Khartoum. In 1824 the Ottoman sultan, Mahmud II,
called on him for aid in the war against the Greek rebels. His successes in the
ensuing campaigns prompted the sultan to award him the island of Crete.
In 1827, Great Britain, France, and Russia found it necessary to protect their
interests in the Mediterranean by shattering Ibrahim Pasha's fleet at Navarino
(now Pilos), on the west Peloponnesian coast of Greece, thereby preventing
Muhammad Ali from pressing his victories over the Greeks. In 1831
Muhammad Ali invaded Syria after Mahmud refused to make him governor
there. His victory in this war resulted in the extension of his dominions to the
Persian Gulf. In 1839 war again broke out with the sultan; Muhammad Ali
was again victorious, but as before was deprived of the fruits of victory by
the European powers of Great Britain, Russia Austria, and Prussia. He was,
however, granted the right to pass his power to his descendants, who ruled
Egypt until the overthrow of King Faruk I in 1952. Muhammad Ali died in
Alexandria, Egypt, on August 2, 1849.
viceroy) of Egypt (1805-1849), who reformed the country and founded a
dynasty that ruled it until the mid-20th century.
Muhammad Ali was probably born in Kavála (now in eastern Macedonia,
Greece) of Albanian parentage. From 1799 to 1801 he fought in several
battles in Egypt, then part of the Ottoman Empire, against the French forces
led by Napoleon I. In 1805 Muhammad Ali was appointed viceroy of
Egypt, with the title of pasha. He defeated an invading British army in 1807;
four years later he ensured his supremacy in Egypt by massacring the
Mamelukes, a military group that had conspired to usurp his power. He
modernized Egypt's governmental administration and military forces and in
1811 launched a war against the Wahhabis of Arabia; the war was won in
1818 by his son, Ibrahim Pasha. From 1820 to 1822 Muhammad Ali was
engaged in the conquest of the Sudan, and shortly thereafter, in 1823, he
founded the city of Khartoum. In 1824 the Ottoman sultan, Mahmud II,
called on him for aid in the war against the Greek rebels. His successes in the
ensuing campaigns prompted the sultan to award him the island of Crete.
In 1827, Great Britain, France, and Russia found it necessary to protect their
interests in the Mediterranean by shattering Ibrahim Pasha's fleet at Navarino
(now Pilos), on the west Peloponnesian coast of Greece, thereby preventing
Muhammad Ali from pressing his victories over the Greeks. In 1831
Muhammad Ali invaded Syria after Mahmud refused to make him governor
there. His victory in this war resulted in the extension of his dominions to the
Persian Gulf. In 1839 war again broke out with the sultan; Muhammad Ali
was again victorious, but as before was deprived of the fruits of victory by
the European powers of Great Britain, Russia Austria, and Prussia. He was,
however, granted the right to pass his power to his descendants, who ruled
Egypt until the overthrow of King Faruk I in 1952. Muhammad Ali died in
Alexandria, Egypt, on August 2, 1849.
| "Muhammad Ali (1769-1849)," Microsoft Encarta |
Ibrahim Pasha :Son of Muhammad Ali, Ottoman
pasha of Egypt, Ibrahim Pasha fought in many Ottoman wars,
including a notorious campaign in Greece in the 1820s which
led to intervention by the European Great Powers. He later
fought for his father against the Ottoman sultanate. Ibrahim
inherited his father's position in 1848, but died within the year.
Collection Viollet/Roger-Viollet
pasha of Egypt, Ibrahim Pasha fought in many Ottoman wars,
including a notorious campaign in Greece in the 1820s which
led to intervention by the European Great Powers. He later
fought for his father against the Ottoman sultanate. Ibrahim
inherited his father's position in 1848, but died within the year.
Collection Viollet/Roger-Viollet
"Ibrahim Pasha," Microsoft® Encarta® Encyclopedia 2000. © 1993-1999
Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
Ibrahim Pasha (1789-1848), Egyptian general and viceroy, born in Kavála,
eastern Macedonia, Greece, the son or adopted son of Muhammad Ali, who
became the Turkish-appointed viceroy of Egypt. Ibrahim commanded the
Egyptian troops in Arabia in their successful campaign against the Wahhabi
tribesmen (1816-1818). In 1824, during the war for Greek independence
from Turkey, he was sent to the Peloponnese (Greece) with a squadron and
an army of 17,000 men to quell the rebellion. With superior forces and
artillery, he was victorious in the field but was harassed by Greek guerrilla
forces after the siege of Missolonghi (1824). In revenge, he devastated the
country and deported and enslaved thousands of Greeks. Great Britain,
Russia, and France intervened and compelled the Egyptian force to
withdraw in 1828.
In 1831, when his father revoked his allegiance to the sultan of the Ottoman
Empire, Ibrahim invaded Syria, then under Ottoman rule. He defeated the
Turks in several battles and became governor of Syria. The conflict was
resumed from 1838 to 1839 and culminated in Egyptian victory. Great
Britain, Russia, Austria, and Prussia, however, forced Ibrahim Pasha to
abandon Syria in 1841. He replaced his father as viceroy of Egypt in 1848,
but died shortly afterwards.
Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
Ibrahim Pasha (1789-1848), Egyptian general and viceroy, born in Kavála,
eastern Macedonia, Greece, the son or adopted son of Muhammad Ali, who
became the Turkish-appointed viceroy of Egypt. Ibrahim commanded the
Egyptian troops in Arabia in their successful campaign against the Wahhabi
tribesmen (1816-1818). In 1824, during the war for Greek independence
from Turkey, he was sent to the Peloponnese (Greece) with a squadron and
an army of 17,000 men to quell the rebellion. With superior forces and
artillery, he was victorious in the field but was harassed by Greek guerrilla
forces after the siege of Missolonghi (1824). In revenge, he devastated the
country and deported and enslaved thousands of Greeks. Great Britain,
Russia, and France intervened and compelled the Egyptian force to
withdraw in 1828.
In 1831, when his father revoked his allegiance to the sultan of the Ottoman
Empire, Ibrahim invaded Syria, then under Ottoman rule. He defeated the
Turks in several battles and became governor of Syria. The conflict was
resumed from 1838 to 1839 and culminated in Egyptian victory. Great
Britain, Russia, Austria, and Prussia, however, forced Ibrahim Pasha to
abandon Syria in 1841. He replaced his father as viceroy of Egypt in 1848,
but died shortly afterwards.
Abbas I (of Egypt) (1813-1854), pasha of Egypt
(1849-1854), grandson of the pasha Muhammad
Ali. His full name was Abbas Hilmi. In 1848, on the
death of his uncle Ibrahim Pasha, Abbas became
regent of Egypt for the Ottoman Empire. He was
created pasha in the following year. Most of the
domestic reforms accomplished by Muhammad Ali
were undone during the reign of Abbas, who
opposed the Suez Canal project, though he allowed
the British to build the Alexandria-Cairo Railway.
In general he distrusted Europeans and
European-inspired reforms. Finally he was
murdered by his slaves.
(1849-1854), grandson of the pasha Muhammad
Ali. His full name was Abbas Hilmi. In 1848, on the
death of his uncle Ibrahim Pasha, Abbas became
regent of Egypt for the Ottoman Empire. He was
created pasha in the following year. Most of the
domestic reforms accomplished by Muhammad Ali
were undone during the reign of Abbas, who
opposed the Suez Canal project, though he allowed
the British to build the Alexandria-Cairo Railway.
In general he distrusted Europeans and
European-inspired reforms. Finally he was
murdered by his slaves.
Abbas II (1874-1944), last khedive (Turkish viceroy) of
Egypt. His full name was Abbas Hilmi Pasha. He
succeeded his father Muhammad Tawfik Pasha to the
throne of Egypt in 1892. During the early years of his reign
he opposed British interference in Egyptian affairs. After
1900, however, he was compelled to cooperate with
progressive measures instituted by the British resident at
Cairo. During his reign Egypt reconquered the Sudan
(1898) and the railway to Khartoum, Sudan, was
completed (1899), as was the first Aswân Dam (1902).
Abbas II supported the Ottoman Turks in World War I
and was deposed in 1914, when Great Britain established
a protectorate over Egypt. He spent the rest of his life in
exile.
Egypt. His full name was Abbas Hilmi Pasha. He
succeeded his father Muhammad Tawfik Pasha to the
throne of Egypt in 1892. During the early years of his reign
he opposed British interference in Egyptian affairs. After
1900, however, he was compelled to cooperate with
progressive measures instituted by the British resident at
Cairo. During his reign Egypt reconquered the Sudan
(1898) and the railway to Khartoum, Sudan, was
completed (1899), as was the first Aswân Dam (1902).
Abbas II supported the Ottoman Turks in World War I
and was deposed in 1914, when Great Britain established
a protectorate over Egypt. He spent the rest of his life in
exile.
Ismail Pasha (1830-1895), khedive of Egypt, second son of Ibrahim
Pasha, born in Cairo, and educated in Paris. He succeeded his uncle, Said
Pasha, as viceroy of Egypt in 1863. Four years later the sultan of the Ottoman
Empire granted him the title of khedive, with the right to pass the title to his son.
Ismail thereupon embarked on an extensive programme of public works and
administrative and social reforms. He also promoted the construction of the
Suez Canal (1859-1869), which connects the Mediterranean Sea with the Gulf
of Suez. As a result of his administrative policies, however, the government
debt had risen over thirtyfold between 1863 and 1874. Eventually, as the
government's financial situation worsened, and France and Great Britain
realized the strategic importance of Egypt, they assumed control of Egyptian
finances. Ismail was compelled to abdicate in favour of his son Muhammad
Tawfik Pasha in 1879 and subsequently lived in exile abroad. He died at his
palace near Constantinople (now Ýstanbul, Turkey).
Pasha, born in Cairo, and educated in Paris. He succeeded his uncle, Said
Pasha, as viceroy of Egypt in 1863. Four years later the sultan of the Ottoman
Empire granted him the title of khedive, with the right to pass the title to his son.
Ismail thereupon embarked on an extensive programme of public works and
administrative and social reforms. He also promoted the construction of the
Suez Canal (1859-1869), which connects the Mediterranean Sea with the Gulf
of Suez. As a result of his administrative policies, however, the government
debt had risen over thirtyfold between 1863 and 1874. Eventually, as the
government's financial situation worsened, and France and Great Britain
realized the strategic importance of Egypt, they assumed control of Egyptian
finances. Ismail was compelled to abdicate in favour of his son Muhammad
Tawfik Pasha in 1879 and subsequently lived in exile abroad. He died at his
palace near Constantinople (now Ýstanbul, Turkey).
Nowhere in the Ottoman Empire was there greater opportunity for a total restructuring of society than in Egypt. The
three-year French occupation (1798-1801) had disrupted the country's traditional political and economic structure.
Continuing the task begun by the French, Muhammad 'Ali put an end to Egypt's traditional society. He eliminated the
Mamluks, the former ruling oligarchy, expropriated the old landholding classes, turned the religious class into
pensioners of the government, restricted the activities of the native merchant and artisan groups, neutralized the
Bedouins, and crushed all movements of rebellion among the peasants. The task of rebuilding Egypt along modern
lines now lay before him.
But, though Muhammad 'Ali had considerable native intelligence and great personal charm, he was a man of limited
knowledge and of narrow horizons. He proved insensitive to the possibilities open to him and governed generally
according to Ottoman principles. No group within Egyptian society was capable of forcing fundamental changes
upon him; elements that might have served as the instruments of change had been crushed at the outset of his regime.
Neither was there an ideology capable of bringing together the ruler and the ruled in a great national effort. Finally,
Muhammad 'Ali had to devote much of his effort to resisting attempts by his Ottoman overlord to remove him from
office. His policies were designed more to entrench himself and his family in Egypt as its hereditary rulers than to
create a new society.
three-year French occupation (1798-1801) had disrupted the country's traditional political and economic structure.
Continuing the task begun by the French, Muhammad 'Ali put an end to Egypt's traditional society. He eliminated the
Mamluks, the former ruling oligarchy, expropriated the old landholding classes, turned the religious class into
pensioners of the government, restricted the activities of the native merchant and artisan groups, neutralized the
Bedouins, and crushed all movements of rebellion among the peasants. The task of rebuilding Egypt along modern
lines now lay before him.
But, though Muhammad 'Ali had considerable native intelligence and great personal charm, he was a man of limited
knowledge and of narrow horizons. He proved insensitive to the possibilities open to him and governed generally
according to Ottoman principles. No group within Egyptian society was capable of forcing fundamental changes
upon him; elements that might have served as the instruments of change had been crushed at the outset of his regime.
Neither was there an ideology capable of bringing together the ruler and the ruled in a great national effort. Finally,
Muhammad 'Ali had to devote much of his effort to resisting attempts by his Ottoman overlord to remove him from
office. His policies were designed more to entrench himself and his family in Egypt as its hereditary rulers than to
create a new society.